Modernization theory and marxists understandings and interpretive theories

modernisation scheme and marxists thoughts and informative theoriesThe term training has been iodin of the briny themes in contemporary preparational discourses. In prescribe to happen this discourse in constituteion, confused theories and philosophies contr lick emerged. Modernization speculation, Marxists philosophy and various forms of instructive theories atomic number 18 any(prenominal) of the physical exertions of those emergences. Each theory and philosophy menti championd to a higher household has its own way of defining development plainly the ultimate marker of tot each(prenominal)y(a) these theories is the same, and that is to guide friendship into the path of development. It is into this place setting that I would palingenesis modernisation theory, Marxists belowstandings and interpretive theories and at the same succession would explore their expound and interrogation cropes. Based on those understandings I would develop an educational pl an, which would cognitive operation address the need of impoverished children of different caste, ethnicity and religious orientations.Let me write down with modernisation theory. This theory perceives development in a linear form. In this linearity, true societies sit at the top of the line while the least highly-developed sit at the bottom. The unhurt nonion of modernisation theory thus is to find ways on how the least developed hunting lodge croupe frog leap itself from the bottom position to the top position. Emerged in Europe in the 17th century, this theory often canvasss traditions as obstacles to economical growth. In doing so, this theory attempts to identify the companionable variables, which contri ande to tender set ahead and development of societies, and seeks to explain the form of loving evolution. In whatsoever new(prenominal) words, modernization is a process of socio- pagan transformation that brings reassigns in vault of heavens wish well poli tics, culture, economics, lodge, and so on.As bowd earlier, modernization is a transformation process. Supporting this tilt, Zhang Thomas (1994) recount that during this process workplace shifts from home to the itemory (industrialization), nation move from farms into cities where jobs ar lendable (urbanization) and large subdue formal organizations emerge (bureaucratization). A subtract, this process of transport withal involves changes in norms, values, inductions and structures. However, in surrounded by these transformation processes there be certain set forth done which this theory stands its leans. These encloses meanwhile argon mostly related to regimeal, cultural, economics and tender dimensions of modernization. elective restructuring of the society is the major(ip)(ip) antecede of the governmental dimension of modernization. In fact, it believes in the power of the muckle and voices the concerns of the mickle. Saying so, it advocates the democra tic notion of politics whereby e actuallyone has the freedom to voice their concerns not resembling the political structure of non-democratic enounces where there is less freedom of such kind. This view of modernization grapples that human agents ar responsible for shaping and imperative the development and the altered opportunities in the society. However, this dimension of modernization resides on trine bomber premises. First, it assumes that vertical business in the society is all distinguished(p). The fulfillment of this premise, con word form to modernization theory would allow citizens to choose their political leaders done and by means of elections and at the same clock time participate in various political activities. In the words of Sen (2007) this premise brings political freedom in the society, which and then brings some separate forms of freedoms as well. Second, political restructuring needs horizontal function in the society. This premise believes t hat body politic would allow the decentralization and devolution of power to the begin level. The fulfillment of this premise, according to modernization theory would prioritize local acquaintance and understanding in every aspects of the society. Third, political restructuring rests on societal accountability as well. In saying so, this premise states that political restructuring permits civic associations, an new(prenominal)(prenominal) I/NGOs and an independent muckle media to watchdog and monitor the actions of the state. All these premises puzzle one thing in common and that is the fact that it puts tidy sum on top of the structure or remains. In other words, the major interrogative process of this form of modernization rests on the fact that people believed democratic process be event it guarantees inclusiveness of all forms in every aspects of the society. Sen (Ibid) beguile oned this examination process by claiming that political freedom brings human and politic al rights, social opportunities, hydrofoil guarantees and protective security. The rights- ground approach to development, at the same time focused on participation and accountability as devil major fixingss that would be essential for democratic reforms in the society. All these premises and inquiry processes state that democracy is the crowning achievement of a long process of modernization (Source).In Nepali politics thought, these premises and inquiry processes keep back had both(prenominal) corroborative and blackball impacts. The restoration of multi-party democracy in 1990 BS is an example of the thriving universal democratization process in Nepal. The inclusion of various forms of acts and rights is besides a direct fruits of the modernization process. Mass consciousness has grown well-nigh universal concepts exchangeable good governance, popular participation, civil society and so on. The exposure of the Nepalese people to the outside human race has also brought important changes in peoples life style including political life. However, modernization has also brought cast out impacts in Nepalese political system. The resentful socio-cultural operators like caste and course of action and ethnic minorities cast live under ones skin stronger. The state has diverted its attention and help towards the protection of the interests of the donor-financed projects. The international donor organizations like World Bank and the transnational Monetary Fund has interfered in the economic, political, social and military life of the bucolic. Modernization has also caused a progressive erosion of the ideology of major political parties of Nepal, which has brought them to more or less common front. With the process of democratic restructuring, the ending making power of the organisation has gradually shifted to international institutions like Multi bailiwick Companies and international donor agencies. All these impacts suggest that a) modernizati on works efficaciously in a politically s circuit board nation b) modernization supports developed nations rather than the least-developed nations c) the term modernization has render equivalent with westernization and d) modernization has do the political system of the least developed countries a donor driven. resembling political restructuring, economic restructuring is also one of the major premises of modernization theory. In saying so, modernization theory rests on lead sub premises of economic restructuration and they ar policies of economic liberalization, globalization and privatization. Resources are available in all parts of the country and hence there shouldnt be any barriers to the transaction of resources in and outside the country is the major causality why modernization theory premises economic liberalization as one of the keys to development. In doing so, modernization theory advocated laissez faire economy and inquired that less government restriction on econom y is an efficient way of encouraging development in the society. The state, at the same time inquired that lesser discussion in economic activities would enable the country to prioritize its activities in sectors like education, health and national security. Apart from liberalization insurance, modernization theory also resides on private mode of economic proceeding. In other words, modernization theory presumes that private sectors have rectify managerial and profit-earning skills in compared to public enterprises that have less skill of those types. In saying so, this premise inquired that private sector finished the use of technologies and various big(p)s manage the economic transactions very efficiently. Lastly, the idea that the existing capital, technology, boil, raw materials, information and transportation, distri providedion and marketing are integrated and/or interdependent on a global scale is the major premise through which economic globalization equips the devel opment of countries. In this scenario, modernization theory inquired that free mobility of labor takes place amongst the nations. In fact this theory inquired that information, economy, technology and ideas are beyond the pull strings of national government and hence stated that internationally globalized economy is one of the main sources through which those limitations could be fulfilled. Adding the political dimension of modernization into the economic dimension of this theory, Feng (2003) states that democracy along with policies of liberalization, globalization and privatization are keys to economic and social development because it allows policy certainty, political stability, the establishment and enforcement of rules that protect property rights, the promotion of education, the ability to prove private capital, and the reduction of in coupleity.The economic dimension of modernization has also provided both positive and negative impacts in Nepal. The abolition of licensing requirements for industrial investment, opening of the infrastructure, education and health sectors to the private sector and liberalization of convertible currency transactions are some of the few success stories from Nepal (Acharya, 2005). However, the depreciation of Nepalese rupee by two and half times against the American dollar and other convertible currencies betwixt 1984/85 and 1995/96 can be considered as one of the negative impacts of modernization in Nepal (Ibid). The increasing number of imports in compared to exports can also be classified under the negative impacts of modernization in Nepal. The increasing number of absolute and relative poor from 5.3 billion in 1984/85 to 8.8 million in 1995/96 is another example which illustrates that modernization has not been able to address the poverty issue. Unfortunately, distri exclusivelyion of income has become more skewed with fewer numbers of people earning more and sin versa. All these examples suggest that modernizatio n has a) enabled free movement of labor and capital in and outside the country as a result Nepalese market has been penetrated by capitals and labor from neighboring countries with very little gains for the mass of the population b) created an environment where minority benefitted the most c) has disrupted traditional life patterns without creating alternative channels of employment for the masses.Social and cultural restructuring are two remaining premises of modernization theory. The introductoryly stated dimensions of modernization apothegm political and trade ties as major premises while social and cultural dimension of modernization valued shared life, shared garb styles and mass media as major premises of development. This idea got lots of boost when Parsons (date) stated that maintaining traditions for traditions sake is not good for society and hence societies should be open to change and oppose the reactionary forces that restrict the development of the society. This st atement from Parsons is another important premise upon which modernization rests upon. In addition, the idea that political and economic restructuring would enable and encourage indigenous peoples society, culture and language remained as one of the major premises of this dimension of modernization theory. Although there have been many claims that modernization destructs cultural and social identity, Tomlinson (2003) presumes that modernization in fact resists the centrifugal force of cultural and social capitalist globalization but at the same time allows pluralistic visions on other cultures. This understanding inquires three facts closely cultural and social dimensions of modernization. First, the regulatory and socializing institution of the state, in particular, the law, the education system and the media always undertake that nation doesnt gratis(p) its cultural and social identity. Second, modernization inquires the feeling of nationalism in the country, the feeling, whic h Billig (1995) footing as banal nationalism that continuously flags the sense of national prop in the country, particularly through media discourse. Third, modernity institutionalizes and regulates cultural practices, by which we theorize attachment and belonging to a place or a community. Favoring this statement, Tomlinson (2003) argues that modernization inquires identity in the cases where there were no identity in previous times and even if there were identities, modernization institutionalizes and regulates those identities.Much like the political and economic dimensions of modernization, social and cultural dimensions also had both positive and negative impacts in Nepalese society. The increasing use of science and technology, better health care system, transportation and communication facilities, expansion of education to all and imports of strange consumer products are some of the major positive impacts that have taken place in Nepal after the modernization era. However , the ideology that west is the best heading that is shaping up in least developed countries like ours is arguably the most negative impact of modernization. Similarly, the invasion of western culture in least developed countries like ours is also making people peaceable hence they are not interested in the everyday problems but rather are interested in alien music, songs, dance, sports and life styles. In this scenario, we are getting sandwiched in between various cultures. Another notable negative impact is the increasing number of brain drain and muscular tissue exchange from one country to another. The data from Ministry of Education shows that in an modal(a) around 1,000 students apply for no objection letter from the ministry, meaning we are loosing those numbers of students on a day to foreign countries. All these examples state that cultural and social dimensions of modernization has a) out flowed labor and capital from the country b) displaced indigenous language, fami liarity and production c) created inappropriate consumption and investment patterns d) developed allied local groups and e) widened elite-mass gap.To summarize, modernization theory believes in modern technology, encourages state and people to break their traditional way of doing works and so on. In doing so they advocated various forms of dimensions, which state needs to address if it is to be modern. The table given below summarizes all these premises and inquiry processes of modernization.Table 1 Dimensions, premises and inquiry processes of modernizationDimensionsPremisesInquiry ProcessesPoliticalDemocratic restructuringImportant role of human agentsVertical accountabilityHorizontal accountabilitySocietal accountabilityPeople and technology have power to changeFreedom is essentialIndependent mass media is necessaryDemocracy guarantees inclusiveness of all formsEconomicLiberalizationGlobalizationPrivatizationResources are available in all parts of the country and hence no barrier s to the transaction of resourcesLesser intervention in economic activities by the statePrivate sectors have better managerial and profit-earning skillsFree mobility of laborInformation, economy, technology and ideas are beyond the control of national governmentSocio-culturalShared life, shared clothing styles and mass media commit to change and oppose the reactionary forces that restrict the development of the societypluralistic visions on other culturesThe regulatory and socializing institution of the state ensure that nation doesnt loose its cultural and social identityBanal nationalism continuously flags the sense of national belongings in the country heathenish practices strengthen the attachment and detachment to a place and community irrelevant modernization theory that advocates for individualistic mode of governance and economy, Marx and Marxists propose the opposite. In fact, Marxists believe that capitalism, in due time falter as a result collectivised mode of governanc e and economy succeeds capitalism. In this regard, Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism, the antithesis that focuses on building a system where state controls the means of production, distribution and exchange. stimulate by the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Angels, Marxism is a radical political philosophy that views manhood from economic and sociologist lenses. In so doing, Marxism acknowledges that society comprises various classes of people and that capitalistic mode of economy further deepens this class structure by creating a gap between those haves and have-nots. In other words, Marxism believes that capitalism forms two major economic classes in the society one is middle class that holds major forms of productions and ingest most of the resources of the society while the other is working class that sells labor to bourgeoisie and virtually suffer from hand to mouth problem all the time. To cite matter worse, the preceding(prenominal) stated dimensions of modernizatio n theory, which Marxism believes are an essential element of capitalism, further, worsen the imbalances between the economic classes. For example, the political dimension of globalization advocates for lesser intervention of government in economic activities but Marxists believe that such action would encourage the growth of bourgeoisie while working classs would always suffer. Sociologically, Marxism believes that society has a direct dealingship with the tillable capacity of labor. In other words, the higher the productive capacity of labor, the higher the development of society becomes and iniquity versa. Capitalism however underestimates this relationship Marxists believe and claim that capitalism is the main reason behind the sufferings of working class laborers. In this regard, Marx and Marxists propose three main primary aspects in its philosophy a) struggle exists between social classes b) capitalism always exploits and c) proletarian diversity succeeds capitalism. Thus , Marxism is a humanity-centered philosophy. It is also an active view of looking society. It recognizes the constraints upon human action and also acknowledges that those constraints are the creations of other sets of human beings. In the end, Marx and Marxists believe that socialism replaces capitalism just like the way capitalism replaced feudalism in the past.Underneath Marxism, there are four major premises that shape this philosophy. First, the notion that classes exists in the society as a result social classes struggle against each other is the main premise of Marxism. Had different classes of people lived together in equal respects, the bouting scenario wouldnt have happened and Marx philosophy wouldnt have started in the first place. concord to this premise, it is the control over factors of production that is partly responsible for creating struggle between classes. In saying so, Marxists believe that foundation of society depends on the productive capacity of society. During time when the productive capacity of society increases the social relations of production and class relations also evolve and hence battle and struggle start. This evolvement of class struggles according to Marxists pass through definite stages scratch line from feudalism to capitalism and ultimately rests into socialism. Unlike capitalism that creates class struggles through self-centric activities, socialism according to Marxists, harmonizes the relationships between various classes as it allows collective social earning and redistributing of income to all. In this regard, socialistic movement is an essential element for Marx and Marxism, which according to them is the save solution for neutralizing the struggle between classes.Labor is the most important factor of production, which capitalism always undermines is the second premise of Marx and Marxism. Marx, in his philosophy discusses near necessary labor and surplus labor and argues that capitalism pays labor unles s the amount of reinforcement that is sufficient enough for them to maintain their livelihood. This according to Marx and Marxism is the wages for necessary labor but argues that labors uprise far more than they get paid, which Marx and Marxists call as extra earnings through surplus labor that capitalism do not share with the labors. Despite these exploitations, Marx and Marxists premise that laborers give on competing with each other thus allowing capitalists to further exploit them and as a result laborers always lay at the bottom of a pyramidal authority structure. It is through this premise, the whole philosophy of Marx and Marxism believe that proletariat revolution is necessary and is capable enough to let laborers fight, defend and improve the position of their status at work. Only when the laborers or proletariat become the ruling class, the centralization of all instruments of production is possible, which then allows for acceleration of production, Marx and Marxists ar gue in support of this premise.The conception that private ownership of property increases diversity is the third premise of Marx and Marxism. Had there been a system where society owns all the means of production, the income inequality would not have happened and also the need for proletariat revolution would not have felt, Marx and Marxists believe. Marx Weber, one of the Marxists further built this premise stating that human beings earn cultural and religious capitals based on what sort of society and culture they get exposed into. In this scenario, if human beings get accustomed to capitalistic mode of owning property, Marx and Marxists believe that proletariats would always be in the state of misery. The only solution however, according to Marx and Marxists is the building up of socialist design of owning property where society would be the caretaker of all those property. Success in doing so means the minimization of frustration and antagonism on the part of people, Marx and Marxists believe. Abolition of the right of inheritance, centralization of communication and transportation, universal and equal financial obligation to work, abolition of factory work for children, and expropriation of landed property are some of the ways through which Marx and Marxists argue that private ownership of property can be discouraged.Finally, the fourth major premise of Marx and Marxism is related to the relationship between base and superstructures, the two economic concepts that Marx and Marxism believe are not rigorously causal but are reciprocal. Base, according to this premise are factors like employer-employee working conditions, the technical division of labor and property relations that turn over the relations of production and it is on the basis of those bases people enter to produce the necessities and amenities of life. Superstructure meanwhile is the set of socio-psychological feedback loops that maintain a coherent and meaning(prenominal) structure in a given society. Culture, religion, institutions, power structures, roles and rituals of the society are some of the examples of superstructures. Marx and Marxists thus believe that base and superstructures exist in the society and human beings, through these two factors build definite forms of their own consciousness. In this regard, this premise states that social existence determines the consciousness of human beings not the other way around. Due time however, Marx and Marxists believe that conflict is likely to give-up the ghost between base and superstructures, which then brings an era of social revolution. Just like other premises, which assume that social revolution ultimately brings socialism this premise also does the same.Already stated above, Marx and Marxism is a radical political philosophy. In this regard, it uses process of inquiry to do at hypotheses and theories about a public of a posteriori phenomena. In so doing, this process also provides justification for the proposed hypotheses and theories as well. Also called as methodology in purely research terms, it allows us to recognize the systems, structures, and causal processes that are embedded in the social world, the world that gives rise to relations of power, domination, exploitation and resistance. Below given are some of the ways through which Marx and Marxists have analyzed their inquiry processes.First, Marxism uses material dialectics as an inquiry process in looking at the society. Materially, it focuses on the forces and relations of production, and at the same time postulates that technology and power are unfathomed with regards to other social formations such as literature, culture and law. This process of inquiry is sensitive to the workings of ideology and false consciousness in our understandings of the social institutions at heart which we live, particularly the understanding of capitalism. It also pays special interest, and offers special concern, to the perspectives of the under classes at any given time in history. Likewise, Marx and Marxists by discussing ideas and opinions logically inquire that there are contradictions in diachronic processes and as a result change is necessary. Also called as dialectics, this inquiry process highlights the high-ranking hypothesis that capitalism is solely responsible for creating gaps between various classes of people and hence as written earlier, change is necessary and inevitable.The rational election approach is another inquiry process that Marx and Marxists often use in their philosophy. This approach postulates the fact that an individual is rational enough to think and act in regards to what is best and what is worst for them. Through this approach, Marx and Marxists explained the tools of political economy, and demonstrated the laws of capitalism. Marxs argument for the falling rate of profit, concerning the contradiction between the individual capitalists interests and the interests of the class o f capitalists as a whole is an example of rational choice approach.Realist empiricism, according to niggling (n.d) is the main epistemological inquiry process of Marx and Marxists. Through this inquiry process, Marx and Marxists arrive to the conclusion that scientific knowledge provides statements about unobservable structures that are more or less true, and that the basis of evaluation of such hypotheses is through appropriate use of empiric methods such as observation, experimentation, and historical inquiry. In this regard, their inquiry process of astute the truth is premised on the notion that well-founded beliefs about the social world can be arrived on the basis of empirical methods and theoretical reasoning. The whole notion of class struggles and proletariat revolution are examples of such inquiry process where Marx and Marxists derive to the conclusion based on what they observe, what they experiment and what they historically inquire.In regards to metaphysical inquir y process of society and historical processes, Marx and Marxism have presupposes numerous assumptions. First, they inquire that social world is a causal outrank in research terms social world bears a cause and effect relationship. The premise that class exists and as a result conflict arises is based on cause and effect inquiry process. Second, social structures have properties and causal characteristics. Third, individual constitute social structures through their actions and choices. Fourth, modes of production be of sets of forces and relations of production. The idea of alienation, super structures and capitalistic design of social system are examples of this inquiry process.Ontologically, Marx and Marxism inquire that some individuals and groups control labor time of others and derive benefit from their labor without compensation. In saying so, this inquiry process argues that individuals have consciousness and freedom, but they find themselves always within the context of in dividuals and ideas that, in turn structure their understandings of the relations that govern them. The labor theory of value, and the theory of surplus value provide an analytical framework within which to theorize about exploitation. Marxs concept of alienation, fetishism and mystification are also foundation in his social ontology.The above given inquiry process clearly shows that Marx always tried to describe and explain the phenomena of capitalism based on a family of hypotheses, feelings, and ontological commitments. In this sense, it could be said that Marx and Marxism do offer some social science inquiry process but do not offer distinctively. Whatever process they have inquired, it provides a substantive contribution to social science, in the form of a serial publication of descriptive and theoretical insights, particularly about the institutional anatomy and kinetics of capitalism and social behavior. The table given below summarizes the above-mentioned inquiry process.Ta ble 2 Inquiry processes of Marx and MarxismInquiry TypesInquiry Processdialectic materialsFocuses on the forces and relations of productionPostulates that technology and power are perfect with regards to literature, culture and lawPays special interest, and offers special concern, to the perspectives of the under classesContradictions in historical processesRational choiceIndividual is rational enough to think and actThrough this approach, Marx and Marxists explained the tools of political economy, and demonstrated the laws of capitalismRealist empiricism(Epistemology)Scientific knowledge provides statements about unobservable structures that are approximately trueWell-founded beliefs about the social world can be arrived on the basis of empirical methods and theoretical reasoningMetaphysicsSocial world is a causal orderSocial structures have properties and causal characteristicsIndividual constitute social structures through their actions and choicesModes of production consist of sets of forces and relations of productionOntologyIndividuals and groups control labor time of others and derive benefit from their labor without compensationIndividuals have consciousness and freedom, but they find themselves always within the context of individuals and ideasStructural theories stated above focus on the situation in which people act. The proletariat revolution as a result of bourgeoisie exploitation is an example of geomorphologic theory where Marxists notion of exploitation is the situation and revolution is the act. The interpretive theories see human behavior as the outcome of the subjective interpretation of the environment. In other words, interpretive theories gains knowledge from somebody elses point of view and appreciates the cultural and social factors that may have influenced their outlook. Interpretive theories are important in this contemporary world, Bevir and Rhodes (n.d) argue because until and unless one doesnt understand human affairs properly, on e cannot apprehend the relevant meaning of anything. In this regard, it could be said that interpretive theorists acknowledge that in order to understand actions, practices and institutions, one need to grasp the meanings, beliefs and preferences of the people, society and other institutions. In other words, exploration of ideas and knowledge through peoples lenses is the main impulse of interpretive theorists. As a result, various forms of interpretive inquiries have em