Abolition of the Death Penalty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Abolition of the Death Penalty - Essay Example Means of capital punishment include but not limited to; hanging, crucifixion, electrocution, stoning etc. Van Den Haag gives five reasons justifying the constitutionality of the death penalty by concluding that the constitution allows for death penalty which is not the case (van den hag 128).The constitution states that â€Å"if life was to be taken away as form of punishment, then it must be in accordance with the due process of the law†, this proposition is conditional and accords the government a choice to either abolish it or effect it in light of the due process of the law. For this reason I wish to put forth arguments that would lead to the abolition of death penalty. Dissenting Van den hag argues that the death penalty acts as deterrence for future murders. Death being the most severe form of punishment is most feared and a murder would think before carrying out his intention. Previous studies have shown that quiet a number of murders were deterred since the introductio n of death sentence. However, the death sentence takes quiet a long time before it is administered and the use of alternative equally feared forms of punishments could be used instead as a form of deterrence. Deterrence has its limitations as someone already imprisoned and sentenced for death would not be afraid to kill their inmates as well as the prison guards. Death sentence can only be effective in deterring murders if it is carried out fast enough which is usually not the case. Retributive justice comes into play when an imbalance occurs in society due to a loss of life from the hands of a criminal. That balance must be restored by taking away the murderers life. Concurring In rebuttal to deterrence, the death sentence has not been proven to deter future murders. The difference between life imprisonment and death sentence is negligible. Death sentence can have the effect of brutalizing the society, which then makes it a less effective tool for deterring murder as this increases the possibility of more murder (Anckar, 2004, 189). Most murders are committed by people in altered states of mind. It might be that a person acted in moments of immense emotional imbalance due to anger or substance abuse. Also, the person committing murder does not expect to be found out. It would be suffice to say that the death sentence cannot deter such persons or drug abusing criminals from committing murder as they are not in a position to evaluate the possibility of life imprisonment or the death penalty itself. The death penalty has not been proven to deter more murders than life imprisonment, as most prisoners serving life imprisonment are involved in routine works and like any other prisoner, they are unlikely to commit any crime. People’s security can be guaranteed by offering life sentence without parole without having to use the death penalty (Bae,2007, 235). Long-term imprisonment being a severe punishment can deter any rational human being from committing murd er; however this is not possible as most premeditated murders involve a criminal who is planning on not getting caught or people who murdered out of sheer emotion.. Police in states with the death penalty are not safe compared to police officers in abolitionist states. Also, prison personnel and prisoners are not safe in states with the death penalty than those without. (Wolftson, 1982, 167) In rebuttal to retribution, Sanctity of life should not be compromised to death penalty. Retribution being akin to revenge should not be exercised by a civilized society. Capital punishment has so many problems and risks associated with it and the need for vengeance should not justify its existence. Sanctioning killing for revenge motives lowers the dignity of a mature society which is

Red Lobster Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Red Lobster - Case Study Example Initially, the proposition was to make an easy to utilize programming bundle that did not require exceedingly a lot of computing force. MapInfo gave the first instruments to Microsoft that permitted them to incorporate mapping usefulness in their items, particularly the mapping extra marked as Microsoft Map for Microsoft Excel as a major aspect of MS Office 95. A Geographic Information System known as GIS view shed is the aftereffect of a capacity that decides, given a territory model, which territories on a guide or rather a map can be seen from a given point or rather focuses, line or range. In the communication industry, this capacity can be utilized to model radio wave scopes and to site handset towers for cell phones. However, there are lapses included with this capacity and, without the essential information; it cant represent building statures that may influence perceivability in urban zones. It is a crucial aspect for one to precisely show observable pathway which is well known as the line of sight, LOS of the radio wave scopes with a specific end goal to secure the feasibility of supplanting existing field routines with a geographical information system view shed analysis (Monedero, et al. 2008, p. 337). An inception point equipped for supporting a line of sight of a radio wave transmitter is to be chosen, for instance, from inside the Virginia Tech grounds study region which is the best zone for source point. A view shed analysis is then performed with ESRIs ArcView geographical information system, utilizing this site as the perception point and a 30 meter determination Digital Elevation Model, DEM from the United States Geological Survey is likewise compelling for that. To check the exactness of the view shed, it is fitting to transmit at 27.5 GHz, a line of sight of recurrence that ought to have properties regularly in the wireless telecommunication industry. Also, the use of Super Pad 3.1a as a geographical information system

Operation Iraqi Free

Operation Iraqi Freedom Essay The relationship between the United States and Iraq has been a rather complicated relationship. This relationship can be classified as a roller coaster ride that last through out history. The United States and Iraq relationship became rocky in 1958 when King Faisal was overthrown and Iraq signed with the Soviet Union. Because of the relationship that the United States had with the Soviet Union this made Iraq and the United States relationship a little questionable. In 1967 Iraq broke all ties with the United States when they decided to join ranks in the protest of the United States and Israeli strategic alliance. This decision that the Iraqi made once a country we were allies to a country we do not trust but we will deal with, a country that became a server threat to the United States. However, when Iraq needed us to help them stand against Iran, the United States was there. Regardless of how shady the relationship was with Iraq, the United States saw Iran to be more of a threat then Iraq. Prior to this the United States had removed Iraq from the State Department list of state that sponsors terrorism. The United States did all this in hope of a closer relationship with Baghdad, Iraq. This step the United States made to get closer to Baghdad is what opened the door for the United States to have access to Iraq. By November 1984, the relationship between the United States and Iraq had been at full diplomatic. Needless to say, the United States did not full trust Iraq but did not see them as a serious threat. Iraq continuously showed the United States that they could not be trust by committing various acts against the United States in a way that seemed to be unnoticeable. On March 17, 1987, the Iraqi’s seem to have accidentally hit a United States ship, mistaking it for the USS Shark, this â€Å"mistaken† identify caused the like of thirty-nine American sailors. As if that was not enough, in June 1982 the assassination of the Israel’s ambassador to the United Kingdom, Shlomo Argov, was link to Iraq. The United States, although in what seemed to be a peaceful relationship with Iraq, still believed Iraq to be a sponsor of terrorism. The United Stated did remove Iraq from the list, however it was not necessarily done because of belief that Iraq was not sponsoring terrorist but it was done in the exchanged for expulsion of Palestinian terrorist Abu Nidal. The United States did not doubt that Baghdad was sponsoring terrorist, and the United States was completely right in their thinking. In 1985, Iraq shelter terrorist that was involved in the hijacking of the Achjille Lauro cruise ship and the murder of the wheelchair-bound United States citizen Leon Klinghoffer. Also two terrorist that had planned an attack was held in Rome on their way to the United States. Yet still the United States did not see Saddam Hussein and his regime as a serious threat. Prior to Desert Shield and Desert Storm, Iraq had destroyed the Iranians in April-July 1988 and the United State quickly disengages with Iraq. The overthrow of Iran brought power to Saddam Hussein and his regime that was not there prior to the Iran-Iraq war. During the war Kuwait allow Iraq to borrow seventeen billion dollars, but instead of Saddam Hussein paying it back like Iraq agreed to, he decide to tell Kuwait to right it of because they owned Iraq for protecting them from Iran. Iraq since 1961, when the British ended it’s protectorate in Kuwait, it was then that the Iraqi government claimed Kuwait was an â€Å"integral part of Iraq† (6). If it was not for Britain, Saddam Hussein would have taken over Kuwait in July 1961, so Iraq has had the idea of controlling Kuwait for quit some time, therefore the idea of Kuwait being in debt to Iraq for protecting â€Å"Kuwait† was just a way that Saddam Hussein was using to cause Kuwait to surrender to him. The United States was ready for the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq, so ready that the military was playing war games to train for it and in the middle of training the United States started to see the Armed Forces war games play out in real life. On August 2, 1990 Iraq started to make their move to attack Kuwait. Iraq’s war plan was to kill the royal family or Kuwait, in so they attacked reclaim royal palaces and the Dasman Places. On that same day by eight o’clock that morning Iraq had completely invaded Kuwait City, however the Kuwait royal family was able to escape due to the Emiri Guard delaying actions. This invasion on Kuwait allowed Saddam Hussein to have control or five percent of the world’s production and 19.6 percent of proven global reserves (10). As a result of this attack and take over of Kuwait, Iraq was in serious challenge to the 1980 Carter Doctrine that said, â€Å"any attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the United States of America. And such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force† (10). The Kuwait attack is the reason that the relationship between Iraq and the United States went bad, clearly the relationship was unstable from the beginning, and Saddam Hussein had proven time and time again that he could not be trusted so no one wanted to trust him with so much control over the world’s oil. This invasion of Iraq on Kuwait was the start of the building of Operation Desert Shield. Operation Desert Shield officially started on August 7th 1990 when United State aircraft started to arrive in the Gulf. The mission of the United States was to go in a liberate Kuwait, and their plan in doing so was to attack the Iraqi Army along the boarders of Kuwait and Iraq. In this attack it would deliberately keep the pressure up all through the night allowing the United Stated to by time on the â€Å"Time-on-Target† (14). Operation D3esert Shield was known as D-Day, This plan where complete on August 20th, and some of the other plans were for United States aircraft making and â€Å"hard initial thrust† against the Iraqi forces for the first seven hours the invasion. Also the plans that the United States had was to provision for land-based aircraft to relocate while the aircraft carriers USS Eisenhower and Independence (14). Operation Desert Shield lasted until October allowing all the aircraft to take their places and get ready for the start of Operation Desert S torm. Operation Desert Storm began January 17th, 1991, with the same mission to go in and set Kuwait free, for their royal family was working as custodians of Islam’s holist shrines, Makkah and Medina. The first weapon that was launch in Operation Desert Storm the TLAM that came from the Red Sea headed towards Baghdad. However it was not the first to hit anything, the Hellfire missile was the first to make an impact causing a gap in the Iraqi’s surveillance radar and the boarders of Saudi Arabia. It also had many more successful hits. Operation Desert Storm lasted forty-three days before the United States. February 7th, 1991, the United States was jointed by Joint Special Operation Task Force with the British. The DIA claim that only sixty Scuds was destroyed and most appeared to be ones of commercial articulate. On the 30th of January there were a number of Jordanian trucks that was hit and destroyed. The Unite States has did not claim collateral damage until 1992(67). During Operation Desert Storm on January 30. There was major collateral damage when the United States tried to hit Tigris Bridge and by mistake hit the Iraq Central Bank. Things may look to have gone perfect but a lot of the outside, but the United States there were a lot mistakes that was made. On February 25th 1990 this was the day the ground war took place, this day is known as G-Day. The day before, February 24th, the marine forces and two Islamic corps began diversionary attacks into the Saddam Line. The XVIII Corps launched a deep thrust towards Highway eight, and by the end of the day marine and Islamic forces had breached the Saddam Line and air mobile XVIII Corps forces had established forward operating base, known to this day as FOB, Cobra more then 280 kilometers inside the Iraqi boarders. This was known an Operation Desert Saber. During the ground war there were steps taken to ensure that the possibility of fratricide would be lower. The first step was related specifically to friendly fir between ground units. In order to do this GPS equipped units had to ensure that they were correctly aligned with their unit boundaries and were not moving or shooting over those boundaries. Secondly, Coalition units sacrificed precious seconds to ensure positive identification of targets, sometimes pausing six to ten seconds to be sure it was the Iraqi’s or allowing them to get close enough to get a clear visual identifying it was the Iraqi’s(105). On February 1991, Kuwait was completely set free, and although Operation Desert Storm only last a short time, the conflict with Iraq had never can to an end. Many things went on between the United States and cease fire that take place on March 3. Saddam Hussein he was really upset with the United States for innerving with his attempt to take over Kuwait. He was upset that the United States came in a liberated Kuwait from the Iraqi’s. This rescue mission was not just about free Kuwait but it was also about, taking away the power Saddam Hussein had gained room to take over in Iraq No one wanted to see a man who had proven too many countries time and time again that he is a man that can not be trusted at all . The time after Operational Desert Storm until the Operation Iraqi Freedom, was not a peaceful journey for the United States. Because of Saddam Hussein’s angry with the United States; the United States has suffered many attacks from Iraq. After the war the United States came in control of the airspace over the boarder of Saudi Arabia. This area was continually attacked by Saddam Hussein in this area. In September 1990, United States Air Force Brig. Gen. Bustert Glosson remains in the Saudi Arabia area to take command of the Special Planning Group that had developed a new integration of Instant Thunder which is now known as Offensive Campaign-Phase One. The mission of Instant Thunder Phase One was to reduce the strength of Iraqi’s deviations and there should be no diversion of air strikes against fielded armed force. The Saddam Hussein regime, the Baathist, the one that would give the most trouble was \ after Operation Desert Storm in March 1990 went from it survival tactics to becoming a resistant regime. From July 23, 1992, the Iraqi’s began to launch air attacks and continued to increase between the months of April and August, showcasing Saddam Hussein’s freedom of action. It was during this time that the United States, Bush distraction formed the â€Å"no-fly zone† Every since both of the no-fly zone in both the north, formed April 1991 and the south, formed in August 1992, was formed Saddam Hussein main goal had been to shoot down a United States aircraft using a mix of aerial and SAM forces(131). During this time Saddam Hussein was building his forces and he began to fly his aircraft in the no-fly zone, on January 6, 1993 Present Bush gave Iraq forty-eight hours to remove there aircrafts from the no-fly zone, Iraq to back away and removed their SAM from the area. However Saddam sent unarmed men into the United Nations’ zone to recover an aircraft that was lost in Desert Storm. The HY-2 Silkworm was no longer theirs it was suppose to go to Kuwait, this breach into the zone that separated Iraq from Kuwait is was started the first war between Operation Desert Storm and Operation Iraqi Freedom. The first attack on Iraq since Operation Desert Storm was Operation Provide Comfort. One of the mistakes of Operation Provide Comfort is it was unsuccessful because the United States decided to attack anyway with out being able to visional see the target. On January 11th and 12th the weather was bad and they were unable to see but because they were running out of time, the United States attacked anyway on January 12th. Once the United States was able to see what targets was hit, they quickly learned that it was a bad mission, out of the thirty-three targets only sixteen had been hit. On August 31st, an Iraqi armored spearhead thrust northward into the Green Lines and this action cause once again another attack on Iraq, Operation Desert Strike. From this point there have been countless attacks on Iraq due to Saddam Hussein’s many attempts to destroy the United States. Saddam Hussein has attack many of the United States’ U-2’s that were guarding the no-fly zone that he continually violated. Operation Desert Thunder I, II, and IV was all organized because Iraq kept violating the no-fly zone rules. However Saddam Hussein had a stagy known as â€Å"cheat and retreat.† By this time the UN had set up inspections throughout Iraq in search of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) On many occasion Saddam Hussein would deny the inspectors access to certain places then when the United States were about to take action Saddam Hussein would retreat and back down. Saddam Hussein had used the cheat and retreat tactic so much that finally the Clinton administration took action and Operation Desert Fox took place. Because of so many times that Iraq would back down once the United States had spent money to deploy troops, the United States decided to make Operation Desert Fox a surprise by not deploying any more troops in the area only using the troops that was already in theater. This Operation started on December 18-19 as a successful mission; however things did not go all well because the United States received the wrong information about the where about of Saddam Hussein and his family. The United States was told that Saddam and his family would be at one of his wife’s places, Dora, but it was empty and had been for sometime. There were many other events that lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom, but what push the limit for the United States was the events that took place on September 11. 2001 at 0730 Baghdad time a Predator was lost while flying a reconnaissance mission, making it the second to be lost in a few weeks time the first was shoot down. Also on this day nine hours later the first plane hit the north tower of the World Trade Center. The U.S. had enough of Iraq, all the trouble they have had with Iraq, the hit of the tower, on the U.S. soil was a wake up call. So on March 21 Operation Iraqi Freedom began. After Operation Iraqi Freedom, the relationship between the U.S. and Iraq seems to be at better standing and once again with the destroying of Saddam’s regime and the capture and execution of Saddam Iraq seems to be on good terms with the United States and now seems to be working for the same goal.

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles

Classifications of Snakes and Reptiles Reptiles are some of the oldest living creatures on the planet and made their first appearance some 300 million years ago. It is believed that the first species of snakes contained limbs which became more and more reduced through great periods of time, this phenomenon can be seen as a clear indicator just how evolution took place within a group of organisms. Today vestigial structures occur in certain serpent families such as Pythonidae and Boidae, and are remnants of structures they once possessed. Spurs which occur in the posterior position opposite the cloacae in Boas and Pythons is a clear example of vestigial structures that formed through time. Snakes are carnivorous reptiles that belong to the order Squamata (Lepidosuaria), which is regarded the most important assemblage, as far as snakes are concerned. Squamates is a very diverse group of ectothermic (organisms that rely on their external environment to obtain the energy needed to facilitate metabolic and other processes crucial for life), amniote vertebrates which contain the distinct characteristic of being elongated and covered in overlapping scales. Squamata is subdivided into three distinct suborders: Ophidia or Serpentes, containing snakes, Sauria containing lizards and Amphisbaenia containing worm- lizards. The suborder Ophidia contains 15 families which are subdivided into 456 genera that consist of more than 2900 species. Snakes have one of the widest distributional ranges in the animal kingdom, covering the whole planet except Antarctica (Figure 1.1). In South Africa alone there occurs 166 species and subspecies of snakes, 101 of these species have enlarged fangs to deliver venom of which only 15 are regarded as very dangerous and potentially fatal to man. This means that of all our snake species only 8.5% are classified as dangerous, where administration of antivenin is deemed necessary. The remainder of venomous species is of no medical importance to man, in fact in some species the toxicity of their venom is less than that found in bees and wasps. There are a few morphological characteristics of Ophidia which distinguishes them from the other two suborders e.g. the lack of eyelids, external ears, the lack of limbs and the occurrence of a single row of ventral scales, whereas lizards and amphisbaenas differ in the sense that they have various patterns of scales that do not occur in specific rows. Amphisbaenians scale formation is atypical in the sense that scales are arranged in rows around the body of the animal thus supposedly mimicking the resemblance of an earthworm. The skulls of Serpents are very unique in the sense that their upper jaw bones arent united/interconnected at snout of the animal, this enables the two jaw bones to act separate form one another and enables the snake to swallow large prey items. In contrary to popular belief snakes can however not dislocate or unhinge their jaws to swallow large prey items, the two upper jaws are simply connected to each other through connective tissue which is highly elastic a nd serves as the binding factor between the jaws. Snakes fulfill a crucial role/function in nature and can be seen as an integral aspect of our environment both as key predators and as prey. They assist in regulating rodent numbers and are good indicators of the natural balance of the environment (bio-indicators). In addition to this, research and development is being done on the properties of venom in the medical field. Research is being conducted on the applications of venom in fields such as high blood pressure, mental disorders and diseases of the central nervous system to mention but a few. Such is the complexity of venom that further studies, beneficial to man, are essential. It is there for imperative that we conserve our snakes not only for the preservation of our environment, but also for the wellbeing of mankind. Evolution that took place within the Class Reptilia Reptiles evolved from prehistoric amphibians called Labrynthodonts (Flank, 1997), and according to paleontologists made their first appearance in the Pennsylvanian era some 300 million years ago. They were also the first vertebrates to escape dependency on water. The earliest forms of reptiles suggested a mixture of both amphibian and reptilian characteristics, and diversified greatly over the next 200 million years. Reptiles were the dominant animal group on earth during the Mesozoic period, and were represented by 15 major groups. Only 4 of these orders survive today. Extinct are the fishlike Ichtyosaurus, sail-backed Pelycosaurs, flying Pterosaurs, Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, well-known dinosaurs like Brachiosaurs and many others. The dinosaurs included the largest animals ever to walk on earth-the Sauropods, some of them reaching lengths of nearly 27 meters long. Many of the less familiar dinosaurs were no longer than chickens. (Carr,1963) Several basic advances made possible the rise and wide distribution of reptiles on land. Most important was the amniote egg, with its tough outer covering and protective membranes, and a cornified skin that protected the animals from drying out. The positioning of the limbs also made it possible for reptiles to move more easily on land, and an improved circulatory system ensured that oxygen rich blood reached the animals. In their Mesozoic heyday, Reptiles dominated the land, seas and air, and the reason for their dramatic decline during this period is still not clear, although there are some speculation by biologists that the decline was probably caused by a meteor shower which altered a dramatic change in climate and giving rise to the so called Ice Age. Warm blooded vertebrates (Birds and Mammals) began to expand by the end of the Mesozoic period. By the time the Cenozoic period arose only 4 orders of reptiles still existed, and these same four have persisted to this day. The order Rhynchocephalia is represented by only one species, the lizzardlike, granular scaled Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) confined to New Zealand where its survival is now threatened. The remaining 3 orders have representatives throughout the world. The order Testudines (turtles) is the most ancient, appearing about 250 million years ago and remaining virtually unchanged for the past 200 million years. The order Crocodylia (cro codilians) is slightly less ancient and is traceable to the Permian thecodonts. The order Squamata refers to scaled reptiles that include lizards, amphisbaenids and snakes. This is the most recent order and was not common until the late Cretaceous times about 65 million years ago. In order to classify snakes or other organisms it is necessary to understand the origin and evolution of the species and place them into specific genera and families (Figure 1.2) Scientists believe that modern day snakes evolved from the family Varanidae, a group of lizards that belong to the genus Veranus. The fossils of Lapparentophis defrennei (Figure 1.3) was found in North Africa as we know it today, and it represents the earliest member of the suborder Ophidia. This species however shows no direct link between earlier snake like reptiles, and its origin continues to boggle biologists. Lapparentophis defrennei appeared on the earth around 100 million years ago during the Cretaceous period and were around for about 35 million years, were after it got extinct by the end of the Cretaceous period. Boidae was one of the seven families of snakes that arose after the Cretaceous period and was at its peak of speciation during this time. Colubridae in modern day times is the family that contains the largest amount of different snake species, and first emerged some 36 million years ago during the late Eocene, and the beginning of the Oligocene period. During this time Colubrids started to diversify at an immense rate and eventually gave rise to more new species during the Miocene period. This diversification led to the disappearance of some of the more primitive lineages of snakes because they could no longer compete with the better adapted species that was starting to evolve. Viperidae (vipers, rattle snakes and adders) and Elapidae (front fixed fang snakes generally cobras and mambas and their relatives) originated during the Miocene period and belongs to the infraorder Alethinophidia. The family Viperidae is by far the most advanced evolved species of snake in the world and contains highly specialized structures that enable them to be a very successful hunters e.g. heat- sensitive pits that developed on the upper labial and a brightly colored tail tip that occur in Agkistrodon sp. This is just one example of how specialized this family of serpents is to survive. Distinguising features of the suborder Ophidia All snakes are elongated, lack eyelids, external ears and osteoderms. Snakes poses a forked tongue which can be retracted into a sheath (Figure 2.1) All have along backbone. (Some have in excess of 400 vertebrae), with many articulated ribs used predominantly for locomotion and maintaining body shape. The lower jaw is not fused, which allows the snake to engulf large items. They do however not dislocate their jaw. Prey is subdued either by constriction or by the injection of venom. In the case of venomous snakes small prey items are bitten and held in the mouth until paralysis or death occurs, whereas large prey items are bitten and released to ensure that damage do not occur to the snake. The majority of species have only the right lung but more primitive species such as Pythonidae and Boidae also contains a rudimentary left lung. Unlike lizards the tail cannot be regenerated. All snakes shed their skin. All snakes hatch from eggs, some are Oviparous (eggs hatch outside the females body), and some are ovoviviparous (eggs hatch inside the mothers body thus giving birth to live young). Classification of snakes Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Ophidia (Serpentes) Infraorders: -Alethinophidia -Scolecophidia The classification of snakes are based on different morphological structures The general morphology of snakes is a crucial factor used in their Taxonomy. Factors such as the arrangement of bones in the skull and other parts of the skeleton, especially the presence or absence of a pelvic girdle are used to distinguish between separate and subspecies of snakes. The hypapohyses (vertebrae with downward pointing spike like projections), the coronoid bone (a small bone that occur in the lower jaw), structures of the hemipenes (Figure 2.2, Jadin, 2000) and microscopic and biochemical material such as chromosome arrangement and protein analyses are also used in classification of snakes. The presence or absence hypapohyses, especially in the lumbar region of the spine, is used as one of many diagnostic characters when classifying snakes. The hypapohyses is very prominent in the genus Dasypeltis which use them too saw trough egg shells. There occurs much variation in the shape and size of the coronoid bone. It is particularly large in primitive snakes such as Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae and Anomalepididae. The coronoid bone is very small or absent altogether in advanced snake species. A hemipenis is the sex organ of male Squamates. Male snakes has two hemipenes probably for the reason that when one is damaged or injured, it still left with a spare one which can remain to work and carry out its normal function during copulation. This ensures that the males genes dont get lost and can still be carried over through copulation with females. Hemipenes, under normal conditions are used in an alternating fashion when copulation occurs with female individuals. Sperm is carr ied through the sulcus spermaticus (which is the line running through the middle of a males hmipenis) to the female during copulation. By examining the tail of an individual we are able to distinguish its sex. Males usually have a long tail which contains prominent bulges of where the hemipenes are situated and females usually have very short tails without the occurrence of any prominent bulges. The shapes of hemipenes differ greatly from species to species and contain different cranial structures thus forming a very important method for taxonomists to classify snakes into different species and subspecies. Relationships that occur between different species of Squamates as a result of evolution is best explained through the examination hemipenal characteristics of the different species. The function of the spines and ridges that occurs on hemipenes of different species of male snakes, serves as an adaption to ensure that copulation lasts long enough for egg fertilization to occur. Biology Hearing and Vision Snakes cannot hear airborne sounds due to the fact that they do not posses external ears. Snakes do however have an auditory nerve enabling them to hear sounds travelling through a dense medium. They are extremely sensitive to vibrations and can thus detect someone or something approaching them. For this reason people seldom see snakes whilst walking in the bush, the snake senses the vibrations created by footsteps and beats a hasty retreat for cover. There is however snakes that do not retreat when approached and this is a direct result of the morphological attributes they contain. Bitis arietans, Bitis atropos and, Bitis gabonica, are species of snakes that rather rely on their camouflage to conceal them from potential predators and dangers than to move away, and it is not surprising to find out that Bitis arietans is responsible for 60% of all snake bites in Southern Africa. Contrary to popular believe snakes do have good vision. How else would they safely navigate through the bus h except of course via smell? Their vision however is used mainly for detecting movement. Most snakes have monocular vision (unable to distinguish depth of field) whilst some snakes have binocular vision (able to distinguish depth of field) e.g. Thelotornis capensis and Dispholidus typus. Snakes do not have movable eyelids, instead they possess a fixed transparent shield which covers the eye and is shed during sloughing. Sense of smell For this function the snake uses its tongue. The tongue is flickered; picking up minute airborne particles which when retracted back into the mouth is deposited onto organs situated in the roof of the mouth. These organs are known as the organs of Jacobson. Studies have shown that snakes enjoys a similar sense of smell as we do, the epithelium of the organs of Jacobson works in exactly the same way as the olfactory epithelium we as humans possess. The tongue is forked so that the snake can detect the differences in strength of smell and thus enabling it to locate its prey very accurately. Snakes diet consists of quite a few prey items such as: rats, mice, small mammals, birds, frogs, toads, insects, lizards, fish, small antelope, eggs and other snakes, which is swallowed whole usually head first. Shedding Shedding of skin depends primarily on the growth rate. Juveniles for example shed their skin more often than adults for the simple reason that they are growing faster. Juveniles may shed their skin as often as twelve times a year whereas an adult may only shed its skin three to four times a year. During this process the entire skin is shed from the tip of the snout through to the tail including the eye shields. During this time the snakes eyes become opaque, restricting the snakes vision and therefore making the snake not only more vulnerable, but also more aggressive. A snake may often go into hiding during this period. You may also find snakes basking for longer periods prior to shedding, the reason being higher temperature speeds up the development of new skin, thus reducing the vulnerability period. Cold Blooded (Ectothermic) and Hibernation All members of the order Squamata are so called cold blooded (exothermic) organisms. This simply means that unlike mammals and birds which generate heat internally (endothermic), reptiles obtain their heat externally, usually from the sun. All reptiles will bask in the sun absorbing heat from their environment until their bodies reach the correct optimal temperature (ÂÂ ± 30Â °C) which allows them to function at their maximum potential. The advantage of ectothermy is that it is fuel efficient. Mammals on the other hand convert 90% of what they eat into heat in order to maintain biochemical and muscle efficiency which allows mammals the opportunity to function at colder temperatures. This method demands a constant intake of food. Reptiles however become temporarily dormant at colder temperatures and thus waste no energy. A snake can survive and grow on ten to fifteen meals a year. Reptiles will go into hibernation when their optimal body temperature cannot be achieved from the e nvironment. In areas where there is a significant fluctuation in temperature snakes will go into hibernation. The correct term used is topor. Areas such as the lowveld where there is no significant temperature variations will see reptiles not going into true hibernation but rather into a state of burmation. During hibernation snakes live off the body fat accumulated during the warm periods of the summer, and will exhibit very little signs of activity, thus becoming sluggish. A snake will use anything that will offer it protection against the elements and predation. Sites which are used by Squamates during the winter or cold times of the year for hibernation include deserted termite mounds, hollow logs and rock crevices. Reproduction Sexually active males will approach any snake they come across. The reaction of the approached snake will determine how the encounter develops. If the approached snake is a male and reacts aggressively it may give rise to a battle between the two parties. Battles vary according to species, Vipers and Elapids generally engage in a form of ritualistic wrestling, but refrain themselves from biting each other. Colubrids however react violently and bite each other severely. In some species of snakes several males group together amicably and follow a receptive female. Should there be no reaction from the approached snake the sexually active male uses its Vermonasal organ to chemically determine the species and sex of the snake it has approached. It does so with the use of its tongue interpreting the pheromones emitting from the other snake. Should it be of a different species, the male then seeks out a new mate. All reptiles have internal fertilization. The male places his head on the back of the female and winds his tail around the females and attempts to join their cloacas together. This is seldom achieved at the first attempt. It sometimes takes hours, even days, for successful copulation to take place. The sexual organs of the male consist of two penises, referred to as the hemipenes. Each hemipene is equipped with flexible spines which inflate once penetration has occurred making it difficult for the male and female snakes to become dislodged. Sperm is transferred to the female via a single penis in Crocodilians and Chelonians, and paired penises in lizards and snakes (although only one penis is used at a time). Once mating has taken place the male will often stay with the female for a few days to mate again. Fertilization of the ovule and spermatozoid takes place high in the oviduct, then the egg gradually moves down into the oviduct where the uterine glands secrete a substance which surrounds the egg. The length of the embryonic development depends on the species and also within the species depending on climate (temperature), and ranges from 2-5 months. As stated before all snakes hatch from eggs. The method of incubation however does differ between some species. The majority of snakes lay eggs andleave them to be incubated externally (oviviparous) with no parental care whatsoever. Species such as Python natalensis coils around their eggs throughout incubation. This not only protects the eggs but also regulates the temperature to help assist with incubation. In other species such as Hemachatus haemachatus the female retains the eggs inside her body to produce fully developed live young (viviparous). Between four to eight weeks after mating the female selects a suitable site to deposit her eggs. The site chosen is usually a suitably protected place in the form of rotting vegetation, hollow tree trunks or any other suitable location. The number of eggs deposited depends on a variety of circumstances for example, species, size of the female, habitat (availability of food), age and climate. Eggs laid vary between one and two to as many as 60, sometimes more, depending on factors mentioned above. Eggs usually have soft leathery shells which require a specific amount of heat and humidity in order to ensure that hatch. Once the eggs have been laid there is often no parental care with the exception of a few species. In South Africa the young of Python natalensis may stay with the female for several days after hatching, leaving the burrow by day and returning to the female at night. In most reptiles the sex of hatchlings is determined by temperature, for example outer eggs (cooler) will be female while the inner eggs (warmer) within the nest will be male. The eggs usually hatch between one to three months after the female has deposited them. In the case of some species of chameleons eggs might take up to a year to hatch. The young are equipped with an egg tooth consisting of a sharp ridge on the tip of the snout which allows the young to slit open the eggshell thus freeing itself. The young that emerges are exact replicas of the adults, and the hatchlings of venomous snakes are equipped with fully functional venom glands and fangs, and are thus venomous directly from birth. Egg mortality is quite high. Reasons for egg mortality range from predation to unsuitable nest sites chosen. Giving birth to live young may be an evolutionary process to assure the success of a species, reducing the risk of egg mortality in particularly cold areas where the temperatures wont be adequate enough for incubation. Movement (Locomotion Speed) The ability to function at speed and endurance is directly related to the supply and amount of oxygenated blood to the body. Reptiles, unlike mammals and birds, do not receive as good supply of oxygenated blood. Directly translated, this means that reptiles tire more easily and are incapable of endurance. Based on these facts it is doubtful that the speed of a snake would exceed 20km/h which is much slower than the average human. The two fastest snake species world occur in Southern Africa and belongs to the genus Psammophis and Dendroaspis. There are four basic modes of locomotion in snakes: Sepentine This is the more familiar method of locomotion that most snakes use e.g. the family Elapidae which makes use of this method. The body undulates from side to side while the hind part of the snake makes contact with the surface and the rest of the body is pushed in the direction the snake wishes to go. Caterpillar These are usually heavy bodied snakes e.g. Bitis arietans. The snake progresses in a primarily straight line using its ventral scales to propel it forward. Concertina This is when a part of the body is anchored whilst pushing forward. The snake may anchor its head and then drags the rest of the body towards the head. This is often seen in arboreal species when negotiating between smooth braches of trees. Snakes that make use of this type of locomotion usually contain the characteristic of keeled ventral scales, and include species of the genus Philothamnus. Sidewinding This method is most seen in desert species. It is the most effective method of locomotion on loose unstable surfaces such as sand. Only one or two sections of the body are in contact with the surface at any given time. A section of the body is thrown sideways and is followed by the next section. This way of locomotion can be seen as a specific adaption for desert species e.g. Bitis peringueyi, to ensure that they dont get burned by the hot desert sand when moving. Scales Most people refer to snakes as being wet or slimy, which is quite the contrary. In fact if you touch a snake you will notice that it is in fact dry. Scales are horny skin that originates from the snakes epidermis. The primary function of scales is to prevent rapid water loss, an evolutionary process which has allowed snakes to move onto land. Scales can be smooth or keeled. Some snakes use their scales as a warning mechanism. By rubbing them together this creates a rasping sound that serves as a warning to would be predators. Dasypeltis scabra is a species of snake that occur in Southern Africa and which use this specific defensive mechanism to ward of predators. The North American rattlesnakes rattle is also an example of modified scales that formed through evolution. Scales also help in the locomotion of snakes. Scale counts remain one of the main methods in the identification and classification between different species of snakes. There are four methods which can be used to correctly identify a species via scale counts: Head scales This is done by counting the upper and lower labials on each side, taking note of which scales are in contact with the eye. Examine the nasal scales (single, semi-divided or fully divided). Count the number of preocular and postocular scales and check whether a loreal shield is present. There should also be taken note of the arrangements of scales that occur on the temples, and the presence of any fused scales. Observe the relative sizes of internasals, prefrontals, frontal and parietals, and also note the proportions and shape of the rostral scales at the front of the nose. Dorsal scales Note whether the scales are smooth or keeled. And one head length away from head and in front of the cloaca Subcaudal scales The first scale is the single or paired scale that meets the lateral scales on both sides. Count back along the tail towards the conical tip. Note whether scales or anal shields are single or divided as this forms a crucial part of the identification between different families of snakes. Internal Anatomy of Snakes A snakes skull is specifically designed to suit their specialized feeding habits. Because a snake cannot chew its food and must swallow it whole it is important that the snake be able to open its mouth very wide. For this reason the fifty odd bones in the skull are not fused together, instead they are loosely connected to each other by ligaments which allows the snake to produce an enlarged gape allowing it to swallow prey much larger than its head. The concept is similar to an elastic band. Often after a snake has eaten it will seem to yawn, this is done simply to relax the ligaments and bones t their original shape. The structure of a snakes brain is very similar to that of a bird, but unlike birds and mammals snakes lack the enlarged cerebral hemispheres. In mammals (and birds) the cerebral is the part of the brain, which acts as the learning center of the organism. For this reason, although snakes are perfectly adapted to the environment, it is correct to say that snakes are not very intelligent. To allow snakes to engulf such large prey whole the stomach has to be very strong and elastic allowing it to expand greatly once prey is engulfed. Powerful digestive juices allow the snake to digest bone and teeth. Because a snake is for the most part long and cylindrical, the shape of the lung must be somewhat different in order to fit inside the snakes body. The right lung is usually the largest and extends for 1/3 of snakes body length. The left lung, in most cases is absent, or very small. Snakes have in effect only one lung. During feeding the snake is able to extend a muscular extension of its windpipe (epiglottis) from the bottom of its mouth allowing it to breathe while prey is being consumed. Most reptiles have a primitive three chambered heart which is not as effective as the four chambered heart found in crocodiles (and mammals). In snakes oxygen depleted blood gets pumped into one of the top chambers while oxygenated blood gets pumped into the other top chamber, both chambers get emptied into the bottom chamber and then circulated through the body. This is the main reason why snakes tire easily. In proportion to their body size snakes have very large kidneys. The left kidney is situated behind the right kidney in the abdominal region. The function of the kidney is to filter the waste products from the bloodstream and pass them on to the cloaca for excretion. Unlike mammals which excrete nitrogen waste in the form of water soluble urea, snakes excrete these body wastes as crystals which forms a dry white paste which is excreted along with the feaces. This allows reptiles to be extremely efficient in their use of water. Mammals have a separate urinary, reproductive and a nal opening. Snakes however do not. Instead they have a common chamber known as the cloaca which performs all these rudimentary functions. Waste material is stored in the cloaca until eliminated. The claoca opens to the outside through a transverse slit at the base of the tail. It is often possible to tell the difference in sexes between species by looking at the length from the cloaca to the tip of the tail. The longer the distance between these points would signify the snake as being male whereas a short distance between these points would indicate the snake as being female. The reason behind this is that during reproduction, as mentioned earlier, the male wraps his tail around the females. Some snakes, like the Pythonidae family, have special glands which also empty into the cloaca, these glands contain a foul musky scent which can be ejected when a snake is threatened, frightened or stressed. Venom There is no easy describing venom. Simply put, snake venom is highly modified saliva which is produced by modified saliva glands. Venom is a combination of different enzymes, or proteins, that act on other chemicals and proteins thus altering them or simply breaking them down. Many of these proteins are harmless, but some are toxins. The makeup of these toxins varies widely from species to species. Snakes venom can therefore be best described as a cocktail of hundreds of different proteins and enzymes, this complexity alone accounts for widely differing effects of snakebite. In essence venom affects the protein and chemicals of the immune system and the blood, transported through the body via the lymphatic system. The venom glands are situated in the skull slightly behind the eyes. In order for venom to be effective it has to be injected into the circulatory system. It is therefore quite safe for a normal healthy person to drink venom without any consequences. Venom cannot be compared to poison, and are totally different entities. Venom has to be injected (circulatory system) Poison has to be ingested (swallowed) The functions of venom are numerous: Prevents the putrification of prey prior to ingestion. Immobilizes prey thus preventing the snake from being injured. Digestive properties within the venom begin the digestive process prior to ingestion. Snake venom is also antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiprotozoal which protects the snake from microbial diseases which it may contract from prey. As a last resort, self defense when the snake is threatened. There are three types of snake venom: Neurotoxic nerve acting venom (Elapidae). Cytotoxic cel destroying venom (Viperidae.) Haemotoxic blood acting venom (Colubridae). Fangs (Dentition) All snakes have teeth, but not all snakes have fangs. Most snakes have teeth on the upper and lower

the pigman/short plot Essay -- essays research papers

The Pigman They're all dead: Pigman's wife, Lorraine's father, John's Aunt Ahra, the Master sons, Lorraine's mother's patients, Bobo, and the Pigman himself. All the while, the living move about like baboons in cages they've made for themselves. Why? That's the big question. The answer is central to understanding Paul Zindel'sThe Pigman. We and our students can address this problem, all the while gaining insight into literature and the makeup of the novel. This article provides activities to acquaint students with literary elements, while building up to a dramatic presentation. During this process, the students can experience the dilemmas presented in The Pigman and come to an understanding of the main characters and themselves. The Story The Pigman is a story about John and Lorraine, high school sophomores who, not getting what they need from their families, must surreptitiously seek love, reassurance, and meaning on the outside. In each other and Mr. Pignati (the Pigman), owner of a porcelain pig collection, they find love and reassurance; the meaning they find in themselves, in the unfolding of their relationship with Mr. Pignati and the drama leading to his death. John, a handsome and wild boy, drinks and smokes excessively; and, as Lorraine points out, only his good looks have kept him out of reform school. Lorraine, a shy girl John's own age, has low self-esteem and mild paranoia. John becomes attracted to her because he sees in her the same spontaneous, crazy quality...

Philip Roth- Master of the Double Identity :: essays research papers fc

Philip Roth - Master of the â€Å"Double Identity† because he suffers from one What influences one's identity? Is it their homes, their parents, their religion, or maybe where they live? When do they get one? Do they get it when they understand right from wrong, or when they can read, or are they born with it? Everyone has one and each identity is unique, or is it? In literature, (or life) religion plays a large role in a character's identity. However, sometimes the writer's own religion and personal experiences shapes the character's identity more than his/her imagination does. A person's religion can play a big role in one's identity. Throughout his works, Philip Roth explores the theme of identity doubles. Roth's portrayal of identity formation in his characters is directly inspired by his own identity; his life. One of the most obvious examples of Roth's art imitating life is in two of his books naming the main characters after none other than himself. It was among some of the many startling gestures in his career; in Deception (1990) he referred to the main character as Philip and in Operation Shylock (1993) he made reference to the main character as Philip Roth. In her article titled, â€Å"Philip Roth's Fictions of Self Exposure†, Debra Shostak remarks how odd it is for an author to outwardly make reference to themselves when most authors want avoid any personal association with their work other than writing it, she further points out that Roth intentionally writes this way, making his career out of his reader's inclinations toward â€Å"biographical interpretations†: Few writers dare to name themselves at the center of their inventions, which is why it is so arresting to find a work of fiction that pronounces its author's name within the text. Because readers are frequently tempted, from either prurient interest or more impartial motives, to discern autobiography in a fictional narrative, most writers of fiction seem to labor out of modesty , a sense of privacy, or a display of imaginative capacities to erase the traces of their own lives from their work. Not so Philip Roth. Especially since his invention of Nathan Zuckerman, Roth has encouraged readers to interpret the narrative voice of his fiction as a self-revealing "I," a Roth surrogate who, by the time of Deception and Operation Shylock, is no longer a surrogate but is "Roth" himself†¦ What I argue here is not that Roth is, strictly, writing autobiographically, but rather that he makes capital out of his readers' inclinations toward biographical interpretations of his work.

Percentages in Our Life

Percentages in real world Keywords: math, divide, percentage, interest, persent change Around the year 1260, the philosopher Roger Bacon wrote: â€Å"Mathematics is the door and the key to the sciences†¦ for the things of this world cannot be made known without a knowledge of mathematics†. Centuries later this is as true as ever. Mathematics is unique. It is both a beautiful and fascinating world of abstract structures and ideas and a down-to-earth, practical subject at the heart of modern science and technology.Much of its attraction comes from studying the relationship between theory and practice – an elegant theorem on complex functions, for example, also governs the lift on an aircraft wing, and apparently highly abstract algebraic results have important consequences in data security. There is one of the way to express how large/small one quantity is, relative to another quantity in math we use percentage. A percentage is a part of something expressed as a valu e out of a hundred. Percentages are an important part of our everyday lives. Some examples include: sales and discounts interest rates percentage chance of rainfall xam results statistics and survey results sports statistics. Percentage is a very handy way of writing fractions. Percentages can be compared more easily than fractions(fraction (from Latin: fractus, â€Å"broken†) represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts, for example, one-half, eight-fifths, three-quarters). A percent can always be written as a decimal, and a decimal can be written as a percent, by moving the decimal point two places to the right. The history of percentages goes back to the ancient Egyptians who wrote numbers (based on tens) alongside pictures called hieroglyphs. The idea of xpressing parts of the whole are constantly in the same proportions, due to practical considerations, was born in ancient times from the Babylonians, who used the sexagesimal fractions. Alre ady in Babylonian cuneiform tables are problems on the calculation of interest. Interest and have been known in India. Indian mathematicians calculated the percentages, using the so-called rule of three, that is, using a proportion. Examples: 1)To calculate a percentage value from absolute numbers Peter scores 25 out of 32 in an exam, what is his result as a percentage? To calculate Peter’s percentage score it is necessary to change '25 out of 32†² into ‘? ut of 100'. So: 25/32=? /100 This is done by multiplying the actual score by 100: 25/32 x 100 = 78% So 25/32 is the same as 78/100 So John got 78% in his exam. 2)To calculate the true value a percentage represents A camera normally costs ?120 but in the sale it has been reduced by 15%. How much discount does this represent? (ie 15% of 120) 15% of 120 = 15 ‘out of 100' of 120. 15 ‘out of 100' can be written as 15/100 So: =15/100*120 =0. 15*120 =18 Therefore 15% represents ?18 discount on the camera, th e sale price being ?102 (?120 less discount ?18). 3)To calculate percentage increases and decreasesPercent increase and percent decrease are measures of percent change, which is the extent to which something gains or loses value. Percent changes are useful to help people understand changes in a value over time. Let's look at example of percent increase and decrease. A particular brand of milk cost 35 per bag last week. This week it costs 42 per bag. By what percentage has the price risen? Percentage increase = Actual increase/Original value x 100 In these example: actual increase = 42 – 35 = 7 original value = 35 Therefore: Percentage increase = 7/35 x 100 = 0. 2 x 100 = 20% The price has risen by 20%. )To compare or combine results with different base values Dina sat two exams last week. In science she scored 68 out of 100. In maths she scored 39 out of 60. Which subject did she do the best in? This is not instantly clear. The results would be easier to compare if they had t he same base – ie they were both ‘out of' the same number. The easiest way to do this is to change them both to percentages. Use the same method as with Peter's exam results earlier. Make them both ‘out of 100'. Science: 68 out of 100 = 68% This one is easy because the mark is already out of 100. Maths: 39 out of 60 = ? ut of 100 39/60 x 100 = 65% So, Dina did better in her science exam than her maths exam. 5)Percentages more than 100% This can seem confusing. Sometimes 100% represents a whole one. For example, in exams you can’t do any better than 100% as this represents all the marks available. Likewise when looking at percentage chances, there can be no more than a 100% chance of rain. This represents a certainty. However, there are other situations where you can use percentages that are more than one hundred. For example, a country experiencing hyper-inflation can have an inflation rate of, say, 300%.If you think of this as 300 ‘out of a hundred', this may seem impossible. However, you could think of it as 300 ‘for every hundred' and then it makes more sense. After all, any percentage gives a score ‘for every hundred'. An exam result of 68% is 68 correct answers for every hundred questions. Looking back at the inflation situation, you now need 300 more units of currency for every hundred units you needed before. If you are not sure whether you can use percentages greater than one hundred in a particular situation, the best way to check is to invent some numbers or an example and see if the result is sensible. ) A table normally sells for J750; in a sale it is reduced by 180%. Does this make sense? First, what is 180% of 750: 180% x 750 = 1350 So, how much would the table be in the sale (750 – 1350 = – 600)? As the table cannot be sold for less than nothing, it does not make sense, percentages greater than 100 cannot work in this situation. b) A shoe manufacturer sells 10,000 pairs of trainers in the month of May. During the World Cup demand increases and by August sales have risen by 180%. Does this make sense? First work out 180% of 10,000: 180% x 10,000 = 18,000So the manufacturer sold 18,000 more pairs of trainers in August than in May. This would mean that sales of trainers in August totalled 28,000 (10,000 + 18,000). This does make sense, so percentages greater than 100 can be used in this context. Why do we use percentages? The use of percentages in many financial situation is so natural that is is worth spending a few moments considering why this is so. If you need to divide something up into portions so that each person gets an appropriate share of the whole then percentages are a good way to go about it.If a pie is divided into two parts so that A gets twice as much as B then the appropriate percentages are 66. 66% and 33. 33%. As long as the pie is shared out into these percentages the two-to-one ratio will be maintained. When relative importance is gauged as a ratio then a percentage allocation is appropriate. However notice that as the total amount to be divided increases the absolute gap between what A and B receive increases. This property of a percentage increase/decrease of keeping ratios fixed is less arguably appropriate when what is being shared is less obvious. For example. f A and B work for an hourly rate of $20 per hour and $10 per hour then a percentage wage rise of 10% will keep the two-to-one payment the same at $22 per hour and $11 per hour. However the differential between the two rates of pay has jumped from $10 to $11. If a percentage increase is repeatedly applied the differential between the hourly rates goes on steadily rising even though the two-to-one ratio remains unchanged. This isn’t necessarily wrong but it is important that all concerned understand that a percentage increase or decrease keeps existing ratios fixed but changes absolute differences.